Question 1

Allium sativum - Garlic

Accepted Answer

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Description

A perennial bulb, ovoid or globose, usually divided into several cloves within the multi-layered membranous coat which later dries to form a protective papery layer. The cloves are swollen buds formed in the leaf axils at the base of the bulb. The cloves are pointed at the top, swollen in the middle and narrower and flat at the base.

Scape: to 60cm with 4-6 flat leaves about 1-1.5cm wide, which form a sheath from the base of the plant.

Flowers: are pedicellate, small and white or pinkish, borne in a terminal umbel, interspersed with bulbils.

Seeds: are not usually fertile but bulbils may be used as seed though garlic is usually grown from cloves.

Habitat

Originally native to Asia, garlic is now grown throughout the world, including Australia and New Zealand, for use in food and medicine.

Garlic is usually grown from individual cloves and the larger the clove the bigger the mature garlic bulb will be. The cloves should be set, pointed end up, about 5cm deep and 15cm apart, in fertile, slightly alkaline soil with good drainage. The plot must be kept weed free. The cloves are usually planted in mid-winter because garlic requires a period of chilling below 10 degrees Celsius before hours of long daylight and hot dry conditions in spring and summer. This means that it often does not grow well in wetter areas. It is frost resistant but drought tender.

It is generally harvested when the tops die back in late December and should be dug with its stems left on and dried in the sun on a concrete path or sheet of iron, being turned daily and brought in at night. It must be protected from dew and rain while it is drying. Once properly dried it should keep until the following harvest. If it is not dug, garlic will continue to grow but the bulbs will become smaller.

Parts Used

The bulb harvested in mid to late summer when leaves have died back. The bulb is divided into cloves.

Active Compounds

- Volatile oil about 0.2% including sulphur compounds alliin, allicin, ajoene, and other sulphides to over 90% of the volatile oil, and other compounds citral, geraniol, linalool.
- Scordinins – glycosides that contain sulphur
- Mucilage
- Glucokinins
- Adenosine, phytosterols and flavonoids

Nutritional Compounds

- Vitamins: A, B1, C, E
- Minerals: selenium, germanium, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, copper, potassium, zinc, iron
Actions
- Antimicrobial (allicin)
- Anthelmintic
- Anti-inflammatory
- Hypotensive (germanium)
- Hypolipidaemic
- Cholagogue
- Anti-tumorgenic
- Expectorant
- Diaphoretic
- Anti-thrombotic (ajoene, sulphides)
- Hypocholesterolaemic

Medicinal Uses

The extensive list of constituents and actions reflect the amount of scientific interest taken, and research, into this herb. There are world conferences devoted just to garlic.

The sulphur content not only gives it its familiar odour but also makes garlic chemically active. Allicin is largely considered the active element in the noted actions of Allium. It is produced on crushing the intact clove which releases the enzyme alliinase, allowing it to come into contact with alliin which then converts to allicin. This is itself an unstable intermediate which goes on to form ajoenes, vinyldithiins and various other sulphides.

It may be that the by-0products of allicin are also active. Whole garlic has been clinically shown to decrease serum cholesterol by 10-12%, which is as effective as orthodox drugs. It also decreases triglycerides and shifts the ratio of lipoproteins towards the more favourable high density variety. Furthermore is has been found to decrease endogenous production of cholesterol. Allium has been proved helpful:

- In the treatment and prevention of atherosclerosis
- To reduce blood pressure (the effect being manifest within 2-3 hours)
- To decrease blood viscosity by inhibiting platelet aggregation
- To increase fibrinolysis

All these actions contribute to lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Additionally, Allium has been shown to have antibacterial activity in vivo and in vitro (it was used in the trenches in the first World War to treat gangrene). It has antiviral and antifungal action in vitro. It may therefore be used as an adjunct to any therapy aimed at resolving infections anywhere in the body. It can be thought of as an herbal antibiotic, but it is of course so much better because of its broad antimicrobial action and the fact that it enhances rather than depresses the immune system.

Cardiovascular System

Because of the effects on serum lipids, platelet activity and hypotensive activity as well as the action on blood vessel walls themselves, it may be used for:
- Hypertension
- Hypercholesterolaemia
- Hyperlipidaemia
- Thrombosis
- Varicose ulcers
- Atheroma
- Phlebitis
- Atherosclerosis (prophylaxis)
An Indian study found that the risk of a second heart attack was reduced by eating four fresh cloves (6-10 grams) a day.

Respiratory Tract

One of the main systems to benefit from the anti-microbial action of the volatile oil is the lungs from where it is excreted. Added to this garlic can help make a cough more productive and improve the expectoration of mucus by loosening it.
- Respiratory infections including throat and tonsils
- Bronchitis (chronic and acute)
- Whooping cough
- Influenza
- Recurrent colds
- Respiratory catarrh
- Asthma

Gastrointestinal Tract

The other main area to benefit from the antimicrobial action of Alium is the gut. It is effective in treating all infections in this area. It is also believed that it has a normalising effect on the natural, beneficial gut flora. Garlic is also able to stimulate digestive secretions which would in part add to the effect of its antimicrobial action in the gut. In addition it promotes a regular peristaltic action in the digestive tract.
- Typhoid
- Dysentery (amoebic and bacillary)
- Cholera
- Food poisoning
- Worms
- Flatulence
- Colic
- Increased assimilation of vitamin B1

Externally
- Infected wounds
- Earache (drops)

Precautions

Occasionally Allium can cause gastrointestinal disturbance or allergic reactions but it has no known toxicity or interaction with other medications. It can cause colic-like symptoms in small children (under two years old) and should be used with care in this age group.

The herb will cause a perceptible odour on the breath that is not always acceptable to patients and it may also be noticeable in the sweat.

Pharmacy

Dosage: Long term maintenance 1 clove daily, acute infections 2-6 cloves daily

BHP daily: 400-1200mg dried powder, 2-5g fresh bulb, 205mg garlic oil

Cooking will cause loss of at least some of the active, volatile constituents due to denaturing by heat.

Question 2

Carum carvi - Caraway

Accepted Answer

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Description

An erect, hairless, much-branched biennial, 25-60cm tall.

Flowers:  white, 2-3mm in umbels 2-4cm across. Primary rays very unequal, 5-12.  Flower stems hollow, furrowed, branched.  Bracts and bracteoles bristle-like or absent.

Leaves:  twice-pinnate with segments further deeply cut into narrow lance-shaped or linear lobes. Upper leaves have a sheathing petiole.

Root:  spindle-shaped.

Fruits:  dark brown, 3-4mm, oblong with low ribs, strong smelling when crushed.

Flowers November to January.

Habitat

Originally from central Europe growing in salt meadows and woods in mountains, Carum is cultivated in New Zealand and Australia but not found wild.

It is always grown from seed and will self-sow and likes an open, sunny situation, moist but well-drained.  It should be planted in rows like carrots.  Drought and frost tender.

Parts Used

The seeds collected when dry and ripe.

Active Compounds

-       Volatile oil up to 7% including carvone and limonene
-       Tannins
-       Flavonoids
-       Fatty oil
The seeds also contain resin and 20% protein.
Nutritional Compounds

-       Vitamins:  B
-       Minerals:  high in calcium and potassium, smaller amounts of magnesium, lead, silicon, zinc, iodine, copper, cobalt, iron

Actions

-       Carminative (volatile oil)
-       Antispasmodic
-       Emmenagogue
-       Expectorant (volatile oil)
-       Astringent (tannins)

Medicinal Uses

The carminative and antispasmodic properties of this herb have been verified in experiments and it is considered the most effective the medicinal Apiaceae in this action.

Not much other research is available for this herb.  The notable tannin content distinguishes it from the herbs in the same family with otherwise similar constituents and actions. It is most similar to Foeniculum.

Respiratory Tract

A less strong expectorant than either Pimpinella or Foeniculum it is still used for:
-       bronchitis

Gastrointestinal Tract

The carminative effect of the volatile oil is augmented by the tannins which extend the effect of the volatile oil as well as checking inflammation and acting as an antimicrobial:
-       flatulent dyspepsia
-       flatulence/bloating
-       intestinal colic
-       cramps
-       hiccoughs
-       dyspepsia
-       diarrhoea
-       anorexia

Reproductive Tract

As an antispasmodic:
-       dysmenorrhoea

Externally

As a gargle for:
-       laryngitis

Precautions

As an emmenagogue one would expect there to be the obvious caution in using the herb to treat pregnant women.  This caution is not normally found and presumably the reason is that the emmenagogue action is encountered in larger doses than would normally be used in therapeutics.

Pharmacy

Dosage:  Three times daily:  decoction 0.5-2g, tincture 1:5 0.5-4mL

Question 3

Foeniculum vulgare - Fennel

Accepted Answer

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Description

A stout, aromatic, erect perennial, smelling strongly of anise.

Stems:  solid, striate, polished, about 2m high.

Basal Leaves:  3-4 pinnate, petiolate, ultimate segments filiform, acuminate, 3-50mm long, not all in one plane.

Stem leaves:  similar to basal leaves but petiole extended along whole length into a thin, closely ribbed sheath.

Umbels:  2-5cm in diameter, rays 4-25, usually slightly incurved at fruiting.

Flowers:  numerous, yellow, 1-2mm in diameter.

Fruits:  dark brown, 3-6mm long, ribs pale brown,

Flowers November to May.

Habitat

Originally native to Southern Europe and the Mediterranean, fennel is naturalised in much of New Zealand and Australia, growing in waste places, riverbeds and along railways often alongside hemlock.  It is also well established in city wastelands and difficult to eradicate because it has a deep taproot.

It is usually grown from seed and self-sows freely becoming an invasive weed very quickly.  Likes an open, sunny situation.

Drought and frost resistant.

Parts Used

The seeds collected when dry and ripe.
Active Compounds

-       Volatile oil up to 6% including anethole, fenchone, limonene, phellandrene, pinene
-       Flavonoids
-       Coumarins including bergapten
The seeds also contain fixed oil, tannins, resin, sterols and 20% protein.

Nutritional Compounds

-       Minerals:  potassium, sulphur, sodium.

Actions

-       Carminative (volatile oil)
-       Anti-inflammatory
-       Diuretic
-       Galactagogue (volatile oil)
-       Orexigenic

Medicinal Uses

Like Pimpinella, Foeniculum has oestrogenic properties. The anethole in the volatile oil of both herbs has in addition been found to be structurally similar to nerve transmitting hormones in the body (adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine). This may account for some of the actions noted such as bronchodilation and may be the cause of increased lactation (by preventing inhibition of prolactin secretion), and the reputed aphrodisiac effects.

Respiratory Tract

As for Pimpinella it is used as an expectorant though it is milder in this action:
-       Bronchitis
-       Coughs

Gastrointestinal Tract

The effect on this system is stronger than that of Pimpinella and this is one of its main uses:
-       Colic (suitable for children)
-       Flatulent dyspepsia
-       Flatulence
-       Indigestion
-       Intestinal cramps
-       Anorexia
-       Hiccoughs
-       bloating

Urinary Tract

In combination with other herbs to treat:
-       cystitis

Reproductive Tract

To increase milk flow in lactating mothers.

Externally

As an anti-inflammatory it is used as an eyewash and a gargle:
-       blepharitis
-       conjunctivitis
-       pharyngitis

Precautions

No known cautions or negative interactions.

Pharmacy

Dosage:  Three times daily:  dried herb 0.3-2g, fluid extract 1:2 0.8-2mL

Question 4

Stellaria media - Chickweed

Accepted Answer

Description
https://static.wixstatic.com/media/bb9a17_e586f526eafb4687a8bace5abc5febc7~mv2.jpg

A small, creeping annual with a fine tap root, forming a loose mat that can be 10cm or so in height and spread half a metre in favourable conditions.

Stems:  soft, fleshy, weak, ascending, branching. Can be up to 50cm long with a line of hairs that changes sides at each leaf node as it runs up the stem.

Leaves:  are opposite, ovate to broadly lanceolate and pointed, with short hairs along the margin.

Inflorescences:  are terminal, cymose and usually lax, featuring anywhere from 3 to 15 flowers.

Flowers:  are white with narrow lanceolate petals which are 4-6mm long, with 10 petals equally spaced in 5 groups of 2.

Habitat

Native to Europe and naturalised throughout New Zealand and Australia in grassland, roadsides and cultivated land. Grows best in cooler climates and cooler weather.

This plant seeds itself as well as being grown from seed easily. Frost resistant and drought tender.

Parts Used

The aerial parts of the plant are best harvested during or just before it flowers.

Active Compounds

-      Saponins
-      Coumarins
-      Flavonoids

Nutritional Compounds

-      Vitamins:  B, C, D
-      Minerals:  Rich in iron, copper, calcium sodium; small amounts of manganese, phosphorus and zinc

Actions

-      Antirheumatic
-      Antipruritic
-      Vulnerary
-      Emollient
-      Refrigerant
-      Astringent
-      Demulcent
-      Carminative
-      Emmenagogue
-      Galactagogue
-      Circulatory Stimulant
-      Diuretic
-      Expectorant
-      Carminative

Medicinal Uses

Very little pharmacological information exists on this plant, but it remains in use mainly for its topical application.

It has been reported by some herbalists that although antirheumatic is a property attributed to this plant, they have not anecdotally found it to be effective as such.

Externally

-      Itches
-      Abscesses
-      Boils
-      Carbuncles
-      Eczema & Psoriasis
-      Ulcerative Wounds
-      Shallow Cuts
-      Sun Burn
-      Eye Wash

Internally

-      Dry Throat
-      Coughs
-      Post-partum

Precautions

Chickweed is commonly consumed in foods, and no adverse reactions have been reported. It should be noted that the plant contains saponins which may contribute to the antipruritic property, and that saponins consumed in high amounts may cause gastrointestinal distress.

Pharmacy

For topical use, the aerial parts of the plant can be juiced and the succus used direct or diluted, or they can be infused as a tea. Topical application may include preparation for use as an ingredient in a compress, poultice, lotion, ointment or cream.

Dosage:  Three times daily          
Infusion of dried herb                  1 – 5g
Tincture 1:5                                      2 – 10mL
Extract 1:2                                         1 – 5mL
                                                  
Fresh leaves are edible and can be eaten either raw in salads, or cooked.

Question 5

Tanacetum parthenium - Feverfew

Accepted Answer

https://static.wixstatic.com/media/bb9a17_0eac504304f94f2b9fb9bc9542e251f9~mv2.jpg
Description

A perennial herb that is strongly aromatic, and which has roots and no rhizome, of approximately 0.5m in height.

Flowers:  corymb has 8-40 loosely packed capitula.  The capitula are 15-30mm in diameter, with ray florets that number upward of 12. The ligules are white, with disc florets being yellow.  Achenes are approximately 1.5mm long, being ribbed, glandular, and pale brown.  The corona is approximately 0.2mm long and lobed. The flowers appear from late Spring through Summer and Autumn.

Leaves:  basal leaves grow in petiolate formation, and are ovate to ovate-oblong in shape, being sparsely to moderately covered in short hairs with pitted glandular hairs that are sparsely scattered.  Cauline leaves grow in alternate formation, but become smaller and divide less above, most frequently with the lower surface having numerous glandular hairs.

Habitat

Originally from SE Europe and Asia Minor, both versions of single and double flowered plants are grown in Australia and New Zealand.

It can be grown from seed or from the division of clumps, as well as self-sowing easily.  Prefers light soils and an open sunny situation.  It is also frost and drought resistant.

Parts Used

The leaves or flowers only.

Active Compounds

-       Volatile oils including camphor, farnesene, and pinene
-       Flavonoids
-       Sesquiterpene lactones – mainly a germacranolide: parthenolide

Nutritional Compounds

-       Vitamins:  A, C, niacin
-       Minerals:  high in iron, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, selenium

Actions

-       Anti-inflammatory (sesquiterpene lactones)
-       Bitter (sesquiterpene lactones and volatile oils)
-       Prophylactic for migraines (sesquiterpene lactones)

Medicinal Uses

Extracts of this herb have been found to inhibit the secretion from platelets and polymorphonuclear leucocytes, believed to occur by blocking arachidonic acid metabolism, and therefore prostaglandin synthesis.

Clinical trials have found T parthenium effective for migraines as a prophylactic.

Nervous System

For migraines that characteristically are improved by the application of heat:
-       Migraine headaches (treatment at onset)
-       Migraine headaches (prophylaxis)

Gastrointestinal Tract

This herb may be used as a bitter for digestion.

Musculoskeletal

The anti-inflammatory qualities may be of use:
-       Arthritis

Precautions

Occasionally a person may develop ulcers in the mouth from eating fresh leaf, and gastric disturbance is also a possibility.  A contact allergy may develop on rare occasions.

Pharmacy

Dosage:  	Tincture 1:5 (25% ethanol) 5-20 drops – daily as prophylactic, or at the 
		commencement of migraine.
                   	Dried Herb Capsule 50-200mg – daily as prophylactic, or at the 
		commencement of migraine.
             	Fresh Leaves 1 large or 3 small eaten daily – eat with other food to avoid 
		potential ulceration of the mouth.

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